Bacteria were once thought to reproduce only by splitting into identical clones, until Joshua Lederberg showed in 1946 that E. coli could exchange genes. Two mutant strains, each missing a different nutrient gene, died alone but produced thriving offspring when mixed, a process he named conjugation. The donated DNA came as small loops called plasmids, which carry extra abilities such as antibiotic resistance. In the 1970s scientists learned to cut and paste plasmids, and by the mid-1980s engineered E. coli was producing human insulin.

Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India, with more than 1,600 surviving remains spread over 4,100 hectares. It was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire from 1336 to 1565. Travellers from Persia and Portugal described it as a prosperous, wealthy and grand city with temples, markets and farms along the Tungabhadra River. By 1500 it was estimated to be the world's second-largest city after Beijing, and probably India's richest at the time. In 1565 a coalition of Muslim sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara Empire, its capital was conquered and destroyed, and the city was left in ruins. Hampi remains a religious centre, with the active Virupaksha Temple at its heart.